Panoor
Block Panchayat

Social and Cultural Status

The Panoor Block region encompasses areas that hold the birthplace connections of prominent personalities recognized at the international, national, and state levels. At the same time, Panoor is also a land of struggles and resistance.

Panoor takes pride in such great figures as Padma Shri Dr. E. K. Janaki Ammal (internationally renowned botanist), the Ooracheri Gurus, Moyarath Sankaran, N. E. Balaram, Thayattu Sankaran, M. V. Devan, K. Panoor, K. Thayattu, and former President of Singapore Mr. E. V. Devan Nair.

Based on the suggestion that it is more appropriate to record the history of the Panoor Block Panchayat at the individual panchayat level rather than as a single consolidated history, it is documented accordingly below.

Kadirur

Because the expansive fields were once richly laden with ripe paddy ears (Kathir), the place known as the settlement of the ear became the place name Kadirur. Another legend suggests that since the Suryanarayana Temple is located here, the name came from Kathiravanute Ooru (the settlement of the Sun).

Kadirur shares the general history of Kerala. The advent of feudal landlordism and chieftain rule occurred during a period when no strong centralized government existed. All landed properties came under the control of a few landlords. Chieftains ruled by collecting shares, rents, and other unjust exactions from the tenants through estate managers (Karyasthans). A large part of Kadirur belonged to the Thamprakkal of the Ponniyam Akathoot Mana. They held vast expanses of land as the janmam property of the Kadirur Devaswom. Families such as Kavunkara Illam, Kudakkal, and Kottaal also owned extensive lands in Kadirur. Until the establishment of British dominance in Malabar, the village of Kadirur was under the control of the Kottayam Raja. It was one of the 16 amsoms in the former Kottayam taluk (present-day Thalassery taluk). Due to the abundance of forest produce like black pepper, Kadirur became a focal point of interest for the East India Company. Kadirur was one of the main centers of the military campaign against Pazhassi Raja under the leadership of Major Alexander Dow. Although all of Malabar was ceded to the East India Company under the Treaty of Srirangapatna, the region including Kadirur came under the complete control of the British only after the heroic martyrdom of Pazhassi Raja. Thereafter, the British granted certain local elites the authority to collect taxes. The authority to collect taxes in Kadirur was held by an official of the Kudakkal family. This hereditary authority came to an end with the village reorganization of the year 1961.

The Kacheri (court) of Kadirur used to sit at Kacheri Paramba, where the present Village Office operates. During the rule of the East India Company, Kadirur Kacheri was under the jurisdiction of the Sahib who served as the head of Thalassery Fort. The Kacheri, which functioned as a Munsiff Court, was later shifted to Chavassery. At one time, civil cases in Kadirur were adjudicated by the village court.

Social evils such as untouchability once prevailed extensively in Kadirur. The reflection of the social renaissance led by Sree Narayana Guru was felt in Kadirur as well. Challenging the decadent social system, a group of people led by V. A. Chathukutty Master (Choyyadam)—defying threats from upper-caste elites—bathed in the Sree Suryanarayana Temple pond, creating a major upheaval in the locality.

Inequalities existed even among the avarnas (lower castes), and resistance arose against this as well. A procession was organized allowing members of the Pulaya community to participate up to the Adiyara of the Puliyode Sree Kurumba Kavu. Vadavathi Ramachandran Master, Karai Krishnan, and A. K. Kunjiraman Master provided leadership for this. After 1920, the echoes of the freedom movement and the Congress party reached here. Residents of Kadirur enthusiastically participated in the boycott of the Simon Commission, Salt Satyagraha, boycott of foreign clothes, toddy shop picketing, and Hindi propagation.

Govindan Namboodiri, a resident of Puliyode in Kadirur, participated in the Salt Satyagraha held in Payyanur as part of Gandhiji's Dandi March. C. R. Ramakkurup, P. K. Kesavan Nair, K. N. Chathukutty Nair, Karai Krishnan, Vadavathi Ramachandran Master, and K. Chathukutty Nair were frontline fighters in the freedom movement.

During the 1930s, the political scene in Kadirur became dynamic through the continuous visits and interactions of leaders like P. Krishna Pillai, E. M. S., A. K. G., L. S. Prabhu, and others. Vishnu Bharatheeyan, C. H. Kanaran, K. A. Keraleesan, Moyarath Sankaran, and Ananthanatheerthan also spearheaded activities in Kadirur. The house of C. R. Ramakkurup served as a safe haven for freedom fighters. The National Hotel run by K. N. Chathukutty Nair in Kadirur was a gathering point for Congress activists. In 1936, the Kottayam Taluk Congress Conference was held in the fields of Kadirur. This conference laid a strong foundation for the national movement not only for prominent leaders of Kadirur like K. K. Kunhikannan Adiyodi, K. V. Madanan Mesthiri, Manakkadan Damu Master, K. N. Chathukutty Nair, C. R. Govindakurup, Vadavathi Bharathan, Vadavathi Ramachandran Master, and K. Chathukutty Nair, but across the entire Kottayam taluk.

Students of Kadirur High School also played their part in freedom struggle programs. Under the leadership of students like M. P. Govindan, Thayattu Sankaran, O. G. Balagopalan, and M. C. V. Bhattathiripad, classes were boycotted, and processions and squad activities were carried out. The Tricolour flag was hoisted atop the Kadirur High School flagpole in place of the Union Jack.

Naval officers who were dismissed for participating in the 1946 Naval Mutiny—which helped accelerate the attainment of independence—included K. K. Damodaran Nambiar, K. K. Raghavan Nambiar (Ponniyam), Kunjiraman Adiyodi (Leelalayam Kadirur), Vadakedath Ananthan Nambiar (Ponniyam), M. P. Kunjiraman (Ponniyam), and K. M. Bharathan. In the 1939 founding meeting of the Communist Party held at Parapram, Pinarayi, K. Chathukutty Nair participated as Kadirur's representative. Having entered public life as the President of the Indian National Congress Kadirur Village Committee, he became a member of the five-member Communist Party cell formed in Kadirur in 1940. K. V. Madanan Mesthiri, Madappally Krishnan Master, C. A. Achuthan, and Vadavathi Bharathan Master were the other members. When the Communist Party was banned, K. Chathukutty Nair was entrusted with finding shelters for underground leaders and transporting leaflets to various centers. Affectionately called "Comrade" by the people of Kadirur, K. Chathukutty Nair later served as the President of Kadirur Panchayat. V. P. Raghavan Marar of Kadirur was a party worker who had to endure brutal physical abuse from goons. The famous poison-healer Uchampally Shankara Gurukkal was an early communist worker and admirer from Kadirur. When cholera broke out across the region in the wake of the famine during the Second World War, it was Communist workers who stepped forward for service activities such as sanitation, burials, and nursing patients. Karai Krishnan, a Congress worker, cooperated with the cholera squad of the Communist Party workers. Such relief activities by the Communist Party members generated immense goodwill among the people.

Gangadhara Marar, who sparked much controversy in the political arena, was a good orator and scholar. A railway employee, he was dismissed from service, branded as a communist, following a railway strike. Until the end of his life, he engaged in relief work for patients at the government hospital. As per his will, he donated his dead body to medical students for study.

Chokli

Chokli was the birthplace and field of action for numerous luminaries and famous personalities, including the Ooracheri Gurus, Moyarath Sankaran, and E. K. Janaki Ammal. Bordered by the Mahe River, Chokli is a treasure trove of lush green biodiversity, blessed by the Palazhi Thodu, with Thuluvar Kunnu, Kottaala Kunnu, Kaatti Kunnu, and Chuvanna Kunnu standing tall, and home to vibrant greenery. Half a century ago, it proudly held the distinction of being Asia's largest rattan (Cane) industrial center. It was also a center of traditional industries such as coir, weaving, and beedis. It is a land of Kalaripayattu gurus and Poorakkali masters, literary figures, and cultural gatherings, possessing an ancient culture. That is Chokli.

The entire region comprising the present Chokli Panchayat was under the control of Pazhassi, the Raja of Kottayam. With the establishment of British dominance, it became a part of Kottayam Taluk in Malabar District under the Madras Presidency from May 21, 1800. The Malabar district of that time had 10 taluks: Chirakkal, Kottayam, Kurumbranad, Kozhikode, Wayanad, Ernad, Valluvanad, Palakkad, Ponnani, and Kochi (Fort Kochi).

It is said that the Tiger of Mysore, Tipu Sultan, brought this region under his control. It is to be inferred that the primary town of Chokli derived its name in connection with this. Trenches (Chavukis) were established at the borders of villages conquered through attacks. In Kannada, the word halli means village. It may be that the location was called Chavuki-halli (meaning a village with trenches), which gradually corrupted into Chokli.

Thuluvar Kunnu (known as Thollur Kunnu), the carved stone sculptures in the old Trikkannapuram temple, the Navagraha sculptures made of wood and colored using natural dyes that were on its worship pavilion (Namaskara Mandapam), the stone paving beneath Kaatti Kunnu (the hill that betrayed enemies) across the Mahe River allowing foot traversal during low tide, and the Kottaamala Kunnu (Kottaala Kunnu) temples on the banks of the Mahe River remain subjects of study for students of history to this day.

The place names Othangadi (First Bazaar) and Moonangadi (Third Bazaar) in the Nedumpra region, along with surrounding place names like Manayath, Illickal (Chieftain) Kottarath, Arikalam, Illath, Kuloth (Kovilakam), Madathil, Madadathil (Mathadom), Ambalapparambu, and Manakkara (the other side of the Mana) across the Poonchavayal, as well as the Nelleri Temple, Kottarathambalam, Nedumpra Temple, Puthambalam, Kottiyoor Neyyamruth sanctuary, and Kottiyoor Elaneerkavu sanctuary, along with their ponds and dilapidated sacred groves (Kavus), serve as signposts of a long-lost civilization.

The Ooracheri Gurus, who possessed expertise in poetry composition and were Nimisha Kavis (improvisational poets), resided here, giving rise to the name Kaviyoor (meaning the settlement of poets).

Olavilam was a place with vast paddy fields. Canals and fertile soil enriched paddy cultivation. The wind-swept fields created lush green ripples. According to one view, the word Olavilam originated from the phrase Olam Vayal (Wave field). However, another view suggests it comes from Olivilam (meaning a village where people lived in hiding, where alam means village), gradually corrupting into Olavilam. Evidence cited for this includes the once uninhabited and forested hills like Thollur Kunnu and Chuvanna Kunnu, and Tipu's invasions.

This land has contributed frontline figures of the national independence movement, starting with Moyarath Sankaran, who wrote the history of the Indian National Congress. It is a sorrowful truth to be remembered with guilt that he died of torture while imprisoned in independent India.

K. Kanaran Master, Kayakkal Kumaran Master, V. C. Kunhiraman Vaidyar, Tharammal Krishnan, T. N. Kumaran Master, C. M. Sankaran Master, V. Kumaran Master, R. V. Achuthan Master, C. H. Choyi, and K. P. K. Ananthan are among those listed as freedom fighters. Kannan Sarappa, who served imprisonment alongside I. K. Kumaran Master in connection with the Mahe Liberation Struggle, is also a freedom fighter.

Eminent personalities who visited Chokli include Dr. Babu Rajendra Prasad, Lal Bahadur Shastri, V. V. Giri, C. Rajagopalachari, Indira Gandhi, Kamaraj Nadar, A. K. G., and E. M. S. The majority of landed property was in the hands of a few janmi (landlord) families. Although there were no notable resistances against landlordism here of the scale seen in other parts of Kerala, some isolated incidents did occur. One such isolated resistance led to the emergence of the present Nedumpra Madappura. When the landlord attempted to evict the family of a toddy tapper living on the solitary Kandi Paramba where the Madappura stands, the Madappura was established as part of a strategy to resist it. When the landlord attempted to evict the tapper to make arrangements for the tax collector of the British East India Company to reside and collect taxes there, the Madappura was deployed as part of a counter-plan.

Kumara Guru, who came from Vadeswaram in Payyanur to educate the children of the Mootoor Tharawad, attempted to teach the Ooracheri Gurus, who belonged to a lower social stratum. The upper castes opposed this. Nevertheless, transcending prohibitions, Kumara Guru imparted education to the avarnas as well. It is said that the family welfare center plot in Vadeswaram today got its name because Kumara Guru, who came from Vadeswaram, resided there.

In the past, Chokli was a well-known trading center. People from places like Palathai, Thrippangottoor, Kallikkandy, Poyiloor, and Panoor came to Chokli to sell agricultural produce and forest goods. Asia's largest rattan industry center was located here. Rattan was loaded onto bullock carts and used to manufacture various products. Chokli was also a renowned timber trading center.

Panniyannur

Examining the cultural and social history of Kerala, it is evident that during the medieval period, Kannur district was a cradle of a series of events that enriched Kerala history. In ancient times, the Mushika Kings, the Chirakkal royal family (Kolathiri), and the Arakkal Muslim royal family ruled here. Later, Mysore Sultans, the French, and the British exercised dominance at various times. Iruvenad, encompassing Panniyannur Panchayat and its surroundings, was an area under the control of the Kottayam royal family.

In the early decades of the 20th century, the majority of the panchayat's areas were under the control of the Naluvettil Nampiars. Four families—Chandroth, Kasrath, Kunnummal, and Kizhikedath—ruled this region with an iron fist. However, it is said that the Chandroth chieftain family treated their tenants relatively decently. In addition to them, minor janmi families such as Keeral Kuloth, Kottakunnummal, Manayil, and Ezhikkal also owned some land. For a period, Chathoth Usman also emerged as part of the landlord-chieftain system. The general caste system methods and ritual practices of North Malabar prevailed in this region as well during earlier times. Nair and Thiyya were the two prominent communities forming the majority of the population. Alongside them were Muslims and other caste groups such as Kavuthiya, Vaniya, Vannathan, Malaya, Kaniyan, Kushavan, Shaliyan, Paravan, Ashari, and Kollan.

Caste-based inequalities and social rituals were strictly observed. However, talent was honored regardless of caste. Guru figures who were not from upper castes, such as Palil Chathukurukkal, Ramar Gurukkal, and Velloth Kannan Gurukkal, serve as examples of this.

Nampiars and Nairs were the main landlords. A few Thiyyas owned land of their own, but they had no tenants. There are no historical records indicating the existence of landlord-tenant organizations. A few Muslim families lived in the panchayat during this same period. It is memorable that religious harmony was maintained even back then.

Unique customs were maintained in all communities. While the Marumakkathayam (matrilineal) system prevailed among the dominant communities, Muslim, Ashari, and Kushava communities followed the Makkathayam (patrilineal) system. Untouchability, pollution rules (Theendal), segregation periods (Valayma, Pula, Mathe), and various forms of excommunication existed at the time. When the karanavar (head) of a Nair tharawad passed away, the custom of Padikathal—turning the wife and children out of the house—was practiced.

While untouchability and pollution taboos existed between Nair and Thiyya communities, such customs were strictly practiced between Thiyyas and certain other communities as well. Muslims and other communities followed a similar stance. While various communities came together during ritualistic performances like Theyyam in sacred groves (Kavus), lower castes were denied entry into regular temples. However, members of the Thiyya community would make offerings right up to the temple steps (Adiyara).

During special occasions like Onam and Vishu, tenants offered bunches of bananas, paddy, ghee, etc., to landlords. The practice then was for the landlord to grant land as a favor to tenants, issue deeds (Chaarthu) as a means of maintaining dignity, or re-assign (Mel-chaarthu) a tenant's land to someone else if the tenant fell out of favor. Because there were a few progressive thinkers in all communities, strict insistence on maintaining traditional social customs began to wane. This may also be attributed to the absence of Noodoodiri families here.

The National Movement

This is soil that held strong roots for the national movement. An important event was the Malabar Congress Political Conference held in 1937 at the Panniyannur Arayakkool School. Prominent Congress leaders such as Dinkar Mehta, A. K. G., E. M. S., and C. H. Kanaran participated. Tharammal Krishnan presided. The community feast (Mishrabhojanam) held alongside this event triggered major changes in the socio-political spheres. T. N. Govindan Adiyodi was a Congress leader in Kottayam taluk during this period. Achayi Teacher and Narayani Teacher of Arayakkool School were women's wing activists of the Congress at that time. The intercaste marriage (Mishravivaham) in 1938 between T. N. Govindan Adiyodi and Narayani Teacher heralded social movement. V. T. Bhattathiripad was the chief officiant of this wedding, which was attended by around 600 Congress workers, including E. M. S.

The majority of Congress workers operating here at the time became activists of the Congress Socialist Party, which was founded in 1939. Subsequently, with the advent of the Communist Party in 1942, under the leadership of Moyarath Sankaran, most Congress Socialists turned into Communists.

Another major event was the Malabar Price Control Conference held in 1946 at Kopparakalam (present-day Kavileri Thazhakuni). C. H. Kanaran, Krishna Pillai, Sardar Chandroth, Imbichi Bava, and M. K. Kelu (Kelu Ettan) participated in this conference. Personalities who emerged into political leadership during this phase, and who deserve special mention, include K. C. K. Adiyodi, K. K. G. Adiyodi, Kavileri Kumaran, Thillankeri freedom fighter K. V. Chathu Master, Mundangodan Gopala Mesthiri, C. P. Chathukutty, Andi Master, Koottiyil Shankara Master, P. V. Kunhiraman, and freedom fighter C. H. Kuttappu Nambiar. Panniyannur has also contributed prominent figures to the cultural sphere, such as Balagopalan Master (eminent astrologer and manager of the present Chodavoor Higher Secondary School), Chodavoor Kunhamputty Panicker (famous Theyyam artist), Chodappu, Champad P. P. Kunhikannan (a constant presence in political and social spheres), K. P. Mammu Master (panchayat member, MLA, and leader of the teachers' movement), Thayattu Sankaran, K. Panoor, K. Thayattu, M. V. Devan, Sreedharan Champad, Panniyannur Bhasi, and Premanand Champad.

Mokeri

Present-day Mokeri is formed by combining Kadepram desom and Vallayayi desom within the Panoor amsom of Iruvanad, located in the Kottayam (Kottyat) royal family territory of Kolathunad. Logan's Malabar Manual notes that Iruvanad comprises the amsoms of Panoor, Panniyannur, Puthur, Peringalam, Thrippangottoor, and Kariad. Many years ago, most areas of Mokeri were waterlogged lands. Such waterlogged areas were called Eri in Tamil. Because Mokayan fisherfolk inhabited this Eri region, it came to be called Mokayanmarude Eri (the Eri of the Mokayans). At the same time, because it was situated at the head (mukham) of the Eri, the term Mukhayeri corrupted into Mokeri—both viewpoints exist.

Records show that in 1845, Dewan Bahadur E. K. Krishnan (a member of the Arunda Tharawad in Vallayayi) corresponded with William Logan. His son, Rao Bahadur E. K. Govindan, was the Dewan of Pudukottai. Renowned writer K. Sukumaran, B.A., was a member of this tharawad. Mr. E. V. Devan Nair, former President of Singapore, was a member of the Kurara Illam.

Great physicians (Mahavaidyans) like Thekkan Kunhiraman Vaidyar, Chekidan Kunhikannan Vaidyar, Thekkayil Krishnan Vaidyar, Arundayil Kunjikutty Vaidyar, and Gopalan are unforgettable names in the healthcare sector.

In ancient times, trading caravans of Vaishya merchants wearing sacred threads (poonool) used to arrive in Mokeri from Coorg, carrying trade goods on the backs of horses and mules. They established trading centers in Koothuparambu, Kottayam Shiva Temple, Pookode, and Kadepram in Mokeri. The former name of Kadepram was Kadivinappuram (meaning the place beyond the river ferry). These trading groups were called Davaris. Older generations are occasionally heard referring to today's Kadepram street as Davari. They reportedly brought plenty of commercial goods such as paddy, coffee, and ginger.

The old memory of the place name Arangattu in the Vallayayi desom suggests it was a place where an Aarattu (holy ritual bath) took place. Regarding the origin of the village name Vallayayi, some records indicate it was a place where black pepper cultivation flourished. It is believed that Valliyude Gramam (village of pepper vines) evolved into Vallayayi.

In the past, the present Koothuparambu–Panoor road was the main travel path used by members of the Kottayam royal family to travel to the Panoli Tharawad. Places like Palente Kizhe Peedika, Moothari Peedika, Maakkur Peedika, and Thangal Peedika were prominent trading centers.

A river originating east of the East Vallayayi wooden bridge and beyond Cheruvancheri flows along the present Pathiyam–Mokeri border. It was called Pathippuzha, and further downstream as it flowed westwards, it was called Chaadalpuzha. Long ago, the place name there was Ambalachaadal. Remains of an old temple were discovered there. The names of plots where some Brahmin families and their dependent families lived validate such beliefs. The river flowing past the base of the temple may have come to be called Ambalachaadal. The present Mokeri paddy field region is the dried-up remnant of a river that once flowed broadly here. In the middle of this field stood a mango tree. Serving as a sentinel helping people discern directions whether viewed from east, west, south, or north, the Mokeri Mango Tree stands like an unfading, cool shadow in the memories of the old mind. Various stories were narrated about this mango tree.

The majority of the population in Mokeri consists of Hindus, with the rest being Muslims. Among Hindus, Thiyyas form the overwhelming majority. Shaliars, Nairs, Vanias, Thattans, Kollans, Vannans, Malayans, Peruvannans, Velans, Kavuthiyas, and Veluthedathu Nairs are also present.

Before land reforms, almost all proprietary rights over land rested with upper-caste individuals and Muslim landlords. Land was also vested in a few landlords belonging to the Thiyya community. At that time, conditions in the social, economic, and educational spheres were very pathetic. The lives of backward communities were extremely miserable.

K. M. Karunan, K. M. Krishnan Master, I. V. Das, Purushu Peedikayil, Kavungumvelli Gopalan, and Paloli Damu were leaders of public democratic movements.